“Tribes & Adivasi”: Religion and the Politics of Tribal Identity
- Hindu College Gazette Web Team
- 1 day ago
- 7 min read
"Hinduisation often involves reframing tribal identities within a Hindu cultural framework, leading to the erosion of their traditional practices." - (Baviskar, 2005)
Introduction
The identity of ‘Tribe’ and ‘Adivasi’ provides great insight into the question of belonging to the nation. The identity, which is deeply based on culture, practices, and rituals, is now being influenced by external forces such as Hinduisation by the conservative right wing. But Hindutva is not the sole factor. The colonial state, Christian missionaries, and Islamic preachers have all, at different points, contributed to shaping tribal identities—sometimes aiding their social upliftment, and at other times fragmenting their autonomy. This essay critically explores this trajectory.
The initial discourse centered on tribal identity was shaped by those who advocated for the integration of tribals as citizens of the nation-state and others who sought their assimilation into the Hindu fold. The issue at hand is of indigeneity, and the politics of place and belonging in the nation-state. The affiliation of tribes with Hindu nationalism marked a radical departure from previous decades when tribals had asserted their own distinct identity—especially visible in moments such as the Santhal Revolt of 1855, where the tribals collectively resisted British revenue oppression and outsider domination.
This essay firstly states that the terms ‘Tribes’ and ‘Adivasis’ are different in the Indian context, and secondly that religion, especially Hinduism in the form of the ideology of RSS/BJP, as well as Christianity and Islam, have influenced tribal identity, sometimes enabling, but often isolating the practices and beliefs of the Tribes. It also explores how the term ‘Vanvasi’ evolved from ‘Tribes’ and ‘Adivasis’, and discusses examples such as the Bhil and Gond Adivasis. Finally, the paper examines the dual nature of urbanisation in reshaping tribal culture and rights.
The Notion of ‘Tribe’ and ‘Adivasi’
At the outset, it is fundamental to know what ‘Tribes’ and ‘Adivasi’ are. The term tribe has a long, chequered history. The Constitution of India defines Scheduled Tribes under Article 342, but the creation of such a category was never based on clear anthropological criteria; it was designed to fulfill administrative and political responsibilities (Kumari 2021, 181). Thus, ‘Tribe’ in the Indian context is a legal construct, shaped by colonial classifications and carried into the post-colonial state.
Colonial ethnographers often viewed tribes as animistic, backward, and outside the fold of textual religions. Missionaries and administrators classified them in ways that served colonial governance. Xaxa and Kumari note that the concept of tribe is as much a Brahmanical as a colonial construct. Sanskrit and Hindu texts also portrayed tribes as ‘barbaric’ or marginal.
On the contrary, the term ‘Adivasi’, a Hindi word meaning “original inhabitants”, is rooted in a sense of historical belonging. It connotes a deeper connection to land, identity, and customs. While all Adivasis may fall within the umbrella of Scheduled Tribes, the reverse is not necessarily true. As Kumari explains, the notion of Adivasi is entangled with indigeneity, which highlights the politics of land and culture, not just legal classification. Therefore, ‘Adivasi’ emphasizes rights and identity, while ‘Tribe’ often reduces communities to administrative categories.
The state deliberately avoids officially using the term ‘Adivasi’ or ‘Indigenous’, insisting instead that all Indians are indigenous. This erasure prevents the recognition of historical oppression and undermines efforts by tribal communities to assert their autonomy and cultural heritage.
Influence of Religion on Tribal Identity
Another term that remains politically significant is ‘Vanvasi’. It is used by right-wing Hindu organizations to describe Scheduled Tribes and is in direct contestation with the term ‘Adivasi’. The term ‘Vanvasi’, meaning ‘inhabitant of the forest’, seeks to erase the historical claim to land and cultural heritage by portraying tribals as uncivilized or ‘jungli’. It is part of an ideological strategy to fold Adivasis into a grand, homogenized Hindu category (Kumari 2021).
Tribal religion, often labelled as animism, was historically seen as distinct from Hinduism. However, Hindu reformers and nationalists promoted what Xaxa termed the “Hindu method of tribal absorption.” G.S. Ghurye called tribals “Backward Hindus,” and this mindset continues. According to Hindutva ideology, to be Indian is to be Hindu; thus, Adivasis are often redefined as Hindus despite their distinct beliefs and customs.
This assimilation is not always voluntary and thus may rightly be viewed as an imposition not necessarily through force, but through cultural dominance, strategic incentives, and ideological persuasion. While some may prefer the term cultural assimilation, this paper uses imposition to reflect the unequal power dynamics involved, especially where tribal autonomy is undermined or denied on religious grounds.
For instance, tribal Christians are often excluded from state benefits or labeled as “anti-national”. Similarly, Islamic outreach has occurred in some tribal areas, though often to a lesser degree. It is important to note that all three religions, Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam, have, at times, sought to reshape tribal worldviews. This raises serious concerns about the preservation of indigenous belief systems.
Xaxa rightly argues that religion is not just about rituals but about worldview, autonomy, and collective identity. Those who did not conform to dominant religious expectations were—and still are called ‘backward’ or ‘savage’ by dominant castes (Baviskar, 2005).
Similarly, the Gond Tribe of central India has also been impacted by Hinduisation. Due to state-sponsored activities and missionary activities, the Gonds were forced to adopt Hindu rituals, renouncing their own culture and practices. They also lost their prestigious tribal heritage as well as their identity (Yadav 2024).
Case Studies: Bhil and Gond Adivasis
The example of the Bhil Adivasis of Gujarat signifies how deeply they were affected by cultural assimilation. Traditionally animistic, the Bhil were targeted by the Bhagat movement, which pushed them to adopt Hindu rituals and renounce their traditional customs. This created deep divisions between “Bhagat” and “non-Bhagat” Adivasis. Further, during the Gujarat riots, Bhil Adivasis were incited to violence against Muslims, with the BJP-led state administration allegedly turning a blind eye (Baviskar 2005).
Similarly, the Gond Tribe of central India has faced repeated waves of assimilation—first by Hindu groups and more recently by Christian missionaries. These interactions have not just changed religious practices but have diluted their cultural and social autonomy (Yadav 2024). The idea of “returning” to Hinduism through Ghar Wapsi campaigns was not neutral but a direct response to missionary conversion, often portraying Christianisation as ‘foreign’ and Hinduisation as ‘native’.
This underscores that tribal autonomy is not just undermined by one religion but contested by all dominant religious movements.
Urbanisation and The Erosion of Tribal Identity
Urbanisation has emerged as a powerful force in shaping tribal identity. Many Adivasis are displaced due to mining, SEZs, and infrastructure projects. Once in urban peripheries, they encounter dominant cultural norms, especially Hindu ones, through schools, welfare offices, and local social organizations. Verrier Elwin warned that this could erode the “psychic independence” of the tribal mind (Elwin 1959, 236).
In recent years, right-wing religious welfare organisations have conducted Ghar Wapsi campaigns aimed at re-integrating tribal Christians into the Hindu fold. For instance, in February 2022, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) claimed that about 212 tribal families (roughly 300 people) in Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh, “returned” from Christianity to Hinduism in a ceremony organized in Full Gawdi village. Local leaders framed this as a reclaiming of cultural identity, cautioning that abandoning Hindu roots could jeopardize tribal legal status and benefits (The Hindustan Times, Feb 4 2024).
This demonstrates how urban-adjacent welfare links and ideological messaging can serve as tools for cultural assimilation, even under the guise of identity restoration. At the same time, the same urban environment also offers tribal communities avenues for social mobility, educational access, and political engagement, providing spaces from which they can resist assimilation and assert their distinct identities.
Moreover, tribal identity is often more fragile in rural areas, where traditional hierarchies and casteist pressures dominate. Thus, the erasure of tribal culture is not a uniquely urban phenomenon. Cities may offer tools of resistance and access, even as they pressure tribal communities to conform.
Legal Dimensions of Tribal Identity
In the narrative of Tribal Identity, the law serves both as the tool of protection and, paradoxically, the tool of erasure. The Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution (Article 244 and Part X) provides that the Scheduled Tribes should be protected through autonomous mechanisms and customary laws. However, in reality, protection from cultural and religious assimilation has not always accompanied this constitutional recognition.
In the case of Samatha v. State of Andhra Pradesh, the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India held that Tribal land in Scheduled Areas cannot be transferred to non-tribals and emphasized particularly that the Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution aims at preserving the autonomy and dignity of the Tribals. Furthermore, in the case of N.E. Horo v. Jahn Ara Jaipal Singh, the Supreme Court affirmed that conversion to another religion doesn’t nullify a person’s Tribal status, provided that Tribal customs are followed and recognised by the community.
Together, all these rulings further establish that Tribal identity is based on custom and community recognition, not on any religious conformity, essentially recognizing the importance of Tribal customs, rituals, and preservation of the same from the majoritarian imposition.
Conclusion
This paper has explored how tribal identity in India has been shaped and reshaped by various historical and political forces: colonialism, missionary activity, Hindutva ideology, and urbanisation. Through an analysis of terms like Adivasi and Vanvasi, and case studies such as the Bhil and Gond, we see how identity is not static but negotiated through power. The paper also recognises that Christianity and Islam, while offering alternatives to the Hindutva framework, have similarly influenced tribal autonomy, sometimes enriching, but also fragmenting it. Urbanisation, too, emerges as a double-edged sword undermining collective practices, but also enabling empowerment. The case studies of Bhil & Gond further illustrate how religion has been instrumentalised to assimilate the tribes into a homogenous Hindu identity, at the cost of their autonomy and indigeneity. While several constitutional safeguards to protect the Scheduled Tribes subsist, protecting the tribal cultures in today's world requires legal frameworks, and it demands social and political commitment to safeguard individual autonomy, indigeneity, and rejection of majoritarian nationalism.
By Krishnangshu Debbarma
Krishnangshu Debbarma is a II Year B.A.LL.B. (Hons.) student at the National Law School of India University, Bengaluru. His academic interests lie in political philosophy, Constitutional Law, and critical legal studies. He actively writes on themes at the intersections of law & polity, with a particular focus on questions of power, justice, and resistance.
References:
1) Baviskar, Amita. “Adivasi Encounters with Hindu Nationalism in MP.” Economic and Political Weekly 40 (13): 5105–13.
2) Elwin, Verrier. 1959. “The Tribal World of Verrier Elwin”. Oxford University Press, pp. 235-36.
3) Kumari, Amrita. 2021. “Politics of Terminology: Scheduled Tribes, Indigene, Adivasi and Vanvasi.” In Revisiting the History of India and Beyond by Sagar Simlandy and Keshab Chandra Ghosh, pp 181-93. OnlineGatha
4) Xaxa, Virginius. 2005. “Politics of Language, Religion, and Identity: Tribes in India.” Economic and Political Weekly 40 (13): 1363-70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4416402.
5) Yadav, Smytta. 2024. “Indigenous cultures at risk due to urbanization & Hinduisation”. Northeast Now, March 13.
6) Samatha v. State of Andhra Pradesh, (1997) 8 SCC 191.
7) N.E. Horo v. Jahanara Jaipal Singh, (1972) 1 SCC 771.
8) Hindustan Times (Feb 4, 2022). "212 tribal families in MP ‘returned’ to Hinduism from Christianity, says VHP." Report covers VHP-led event in Jhabua district where tribal families were "reconverted" under Ghar Wapsi outreach
Nice work